Oversimplification and Exaggeration Fallacies

Fallacy Name:Oversimplification and Exaggeration Alternative Names:Fallacy of Reduction Fallacy of Multiplication Category:Faulty Causation Explanation The causation fallacies known as oversimplification and exaggeration occur whenever the series of actual causes for an event is either reduced or multiplied to the point where there is no longer a genuine, causal connection between the alleged causes and the actual effect. In other words, multiple causes are reduced to just one or a few (oversimplification) or a couple of causes are multiplied into many (exaggeration). Also known as the reductive fallacy because it involves reducing the number of causes, oversimplification seems to occur more often, perhaps because there are so many ostensibly good reasons for simplifying things. Well-intentioned writers and speakers can readily fall into the trap of oversimplification if they are not careful. One impetus for simplification is the basic advice given to all who want to improve their writing style: dont get bogged down in details. Good writing needs to be clear and precise, thus helping people to understand an issue rather than confusing them even more. In the process, however, a writer can easily leave out too many details, omitting critical information which needs to be included. Another important impetus which can lead to oversimplification is the overuse of an important tool in critical thinking: Occams Razor. This is the principle of not assuming too many factors or causes for an event than are necessary and is often expressed by saying the simpler explanation is preferable. Although it is true that an explanation should be no more complicated than necessary, one must be very careful not to construct an explanation which is less complicated than necessary. A famous quote attributed to Albert Einstein states, Everything should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler. Examples and Discussion of Oversimplification Here is an example of oversimplification which atheists often hear: 1. School violence has gone up and academic performance has gone down ever since organized prayer was banned at public schools. Therefore, prayer should be reintroduced, resulting in school improvement. This argument obviously suffers from oversimplification because it assumes that problems in schools (increasing violence, decreasing academic performance) can be attributed to a single cause: the loss of organized, state-mandated prayers. A myriad of other factors in society are completely ignored as if the social and economic conditions havent changed in any relevant way. One way to reveal the problem in the above example is to reword it slightly: 2. School violence has gone up and academic performance has gone down ever since racial segregation was banned. Therefore, segregation should be reintroduced, resulting in school improvement. Presumably, there are racists around who would agree with the above, but very few of those who make the argument in #1 will also make the argument in #2 - yet, they are structurally the same. The reasons for both examples of oversimplification is actually another Causation Fallacy, known as Post Hoc Fallacy. In the real world, events typically have multiple, intersecting causes which together produce the events we see. Often, however, such complexities are difficult to understand and even more difficult to change; the unfortunate result is that we simplify things. Sometimes that isnt so bad, but sometimes it can be disastrous. Sadly, politics is one field where oversimplification occurs more often than not. 3. The nations current lack of moral standards was caused by the poor example set by Bill Clinton when he was president. Granted, Clinton may not have set the best example imaginable, but it isnt reasonable to argue that his example is responsible for the morality of the entire nation. Once again, there is a wide variety of different factors which can influence the morality of individuals and groups. Of course, not all examples of oversimplification identify as the cause something which is completely irrelevant: 4. Education today isnt as good as it used to be - obviously, our teachers are not doing their jobs.5. Since the new president took office, the economy has been improving - obviously he is doing a good job and is an asset to the nation. Although #4 is a rather harsh statement, it cannot be denied that teacher performance does impact the quality of education which students receive. Thus, if their education isnt very good, one place to look is teacher performance. However, it is a fallacy of oversimplification to suggest that teachers are the sole or even primary cause. With #5, it should also be acknowledged that a president does impact the state of the economy, sometimes for better and sometimes for worse. However, no single politician can take sole credit (or sole blame) for the state of a multi-trillion dollar economy. A common reason for oversimplification, especially in the political realm, is a personal agenda. It is a very effective means for either taking credit for something (#5) or for placing blame on others (#4). Religion is also a field where oversimplification fallacies can be readily found. Consider, for example, a response which is heard after anyone survives a major tragedy: 6. She was saved through Gods help! For the purposes of this discussion, we should ignore the theological implications of a god who chooses to save some people but not others. The logical problem here is the dismissal of all the other factors which contribute to a persons survival. What about the doctors who perform the life-saving operations? What about the rescue workers who spend insane amounts of time and money in the rescue effort? What about the product manufacturers who made the safety devices (like seat belts) which protect people? All of these and more are causal factors which contribute to the survival of people in accidents, but they are too often ignored by those who oversimplify the situation and attribute survival to just a single cause: the Will of God. People also tend to commit the fallacy of oversimplification when they simply dont understand what they are talking about. This is a common occurrence in science debates because so much of the material can be comprehended best only by experts in specialized fields. One place where this is seen quite often are the arguments some creationists offer against evolution. Consider this example, a question which Dr. Kent Hovind uses in an attempt to prove that evolution isnt true and isnt possible: 7. Natural selection only works with the genetic information available and tends only to keep a species stable. How would you explain the increasing complexity in the genetic code that must have occurred if evolution were true? For someone unfamiliar with evolution, this question may seem reasonable - but its error lies in vastly oversimplifying evolution to the point where it becomes unrecognizable. It is very true that natural selection operates with the genetic information which is available; however, natural selection is not the only process which is involved in evolution. Ignored are such factors as mutation and genetic drift. By oversimplifying evolution down to just natural selection, however, Hovind is able to portray evolution as a one-dimensional theory which cannot possibly be true. It is in such examples that an oversimplification fallacy can also become a Straw Man Fallacy if a person takes the oversimplified description of a position and then proceeds to criticize it as if it were the genuine position. Examples and Discussion of Exaggeration Related to, but much rarer than, the fallacy of oversimplification is the fallacy of exaggeration. Mirror images of each other, an exaggeration fallacy is committed when an argument tries to include additional causal influences which are ultimately irrelevant to the matter at hand. We can say that committing a fallacy of exaggeration is a consequence of failing to heed Occams Razor, which states that we should prefer the simpler explanation and refrain from adding entities (causes, factors) which are not specifically necessary A good example is one which is related to one of those used above: 8. The rescue workers, doctors and various assistants are all heroes because, with the help of God, they managed to save all of the people involved in that accident. The role of individuals like doctors and rescue workers is obvious, but the addition of God seems gratuitous. Without an identifiable effect of which can be said to be necessarily responsible, the inclusion qualifies as an exaggeration fallacy. Other instances of this fallacy can be found in the legal profession, for example: 9. My client killed Joe Smith, but the cause for his violent behavior was a life of eating Twinkies and other junk food which impaired his judgment. There is no clear link between junk food and violent behavior, but there are other identifiable causes for it. The addition of junk food to that list of causes constitutes a fallacy of exaggeration because the real causes only end up being masked by additional and irrelevant pseudo-causes. Here, the junk food is an entity which is simply not necessary.

Band of Brothers Book Review Essay - 1205 Words

Band of Brothers E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne: From Normandy to Hitlers Eagles Nest By Stephen Ambrose ISBN 0-671-76922-7 Review by Kevin Campopiano History 382 Prof. Schweizer Band of Brothers is a book chronicalizing the emotions, bonds, tragedies and tactics used by Easy Company in the 506th Regiment of the 101st Airborne which is one of the highest decorated companies from World War II in the United States armed forces. It is written by Stephen Ambrose, a distinguished history professor at the University of New Orleans and noted American historian and biographer. Easy company was involved in almost every major airborne campaign in the European conflicts of World War II, Even so the book heavily covers†¦show more content†¦Stephen Ambrose is a very thorough and methodical writer who goes through great extents to make sure he writes the most accurate and descriptive scenario possible and has shown this through some of his earlier writings such as his highly acclaimed biographies on Richard Nixon and Dwight Eisenhower as well as his historical writings on the American Civil War. In order to prep for writing Band of Brothers, Stephen Ambrose sifted through thousands of World War II era files and combat reports and eyewitness accounts, but more importantly personally interviewed almost every living soldier from Easy Company among others and got their full detailed first hand versions of the stories he was publishing. 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Alexander Shulgin Free Essays

Ever sense my freshman year in high school, I have always expressed extreme interest in biochemistry and pharmacology. I believe this is because in the past, I have been prescribed many different antidepressant and ADHD medications. I was always very curious as to how these psychoactive medications worked. We will write a custom essay sample on Alexander Shulgin or any similar topic only for you Order Now I would look them up and read all about the different types of antidepressants and how they worked. From selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRl’s) to Norepinephrine- dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRl’s). My fascination with different medications and ow they worked brought me to many different famous biochemists and chemical engineers, but there was one man who always stood out to me. A â€Å"rogue chemist,† named Alexander Shulgin. Sasha, as his friends call him, is widely famous for his discovery of over 230 different psychedelic drugs varying from the 2C family, DOX family, and various other phenethylamines tryptamines. Even with such a gargantuan amount of accomplishments, Shulgin is most famous for rediscovering and resynthesizing methylenedioxymethamphetamine, or as it is most commonly recognized as, MDMA. MDMA is a semi-synthetic drug first discovered some time before 1912. A german pharmaceutical company called Merck first discovered and patented this compound while searching for a medication that would stop bleeding. They never tested it orally, and therefore never found a real purpose for it. Decades later, on September 8, 1976, Sasha synthesized MDMA. Two years later, the first human study was published by Sasha and another chemist by the name of Dave Nichols. They described the effects as â€Å"an easily controlled altered state of consciousness with emotional and sensual overtones. When Sasha discovered its effects after ingestion, he introduced this compound to many psychiatrists, in order for them to allow patients to ingest a small dosage in order to help them speak more freely. The psychiatrists were so impressed by the effects of using MDMA in psychotherapy that they would speak to other colleagues. Word spread very quickly, and many people were astounded by how well it wo rked. Many patients were reported to have said that one session with an administered dosage of MDMA felt like years of therapy. As word got out about a drug that gave you empathy and self-acceptance, use of MDMA slowly became more public. Companies were mass producing this substance and selling it legally due to the fact that if users took a higher dosage, they would feel vast amounts of euphoria. As more reports of MDMA abuse were put in media, the DEA decided to schedule MDMA in the schedule one category. This means they had to prove that MDMA had a high potential for abuse while having no medicinal benefits. Many therapists challenged this idea, and after years of debate, MDMA was scheduled. I can only imagine how upset Shulgin could have been. He had found what was called â€Å"penicillin for the soul. † He had Just discovered a miracle drug capable of llowing a different outlook on life. It allowed patients to open up not only to others, but to themselves. He had heard so many reports from patients exclaiming how this therapy nad changed their lives and allowed them to diagnose their issues and even solve them. It is commonly said that MDMA could still be legal to this day if it had not been for the rave movement and ignorance of others. Sasha has not been shy about letting others know that he is very upset with the outcome of such a powerful medication, and for good reason. He has worked with the Drug Enforcement Administration many times and has eceived many awards for his work. In fact, in order to carry out consulting work with the DEA, Shulgin obtained a DEA Schedule I license for an analytical laboratory, which allowed him to possess and synthesize any illicit drug. Sasha set up a chemical synthesis laboratory in a small building behind his house, which he uses to synthesize and test the effects of psychoactive drugs to this day. His laboratory is littered with Jars and Jars of various compounds with their chemical structure drawn on them, which he calls his dirty pictures. Over the course of this time, he has written nd recorded the synthesis of these various compounds in two different books titled PIHKAL (Phenethylamines I Have Known and Loved) and TIHKAL (Tryptamines I Have Known and Loved). He is working on his last book now. Even with his many accomplishments, Shulgin is in no way rich. His only source of income continues to be from the books he has published. He has never sold any of his substances or withheld information on how to synthesize certain compounds. His creations have only made their way to the streets through chemists in China who read through his books and notes and create these compounds in their laboratories o then export to the United States in a completely legal manner, as these drugs are almost completely unheard of and unclassified. As Sasha gets older, he suffers from many different ailments, and has no way to pay for them except through donations, which he has only recently started to accept. He lives a quiet, modest life with his wife and he refuses to conduct any more interviews. I understand why many people consider drugs a taboo subject. I am sure some people may even consider it inappropriate to discuss in a high school classroom, but l, Just like Alexander Shulgin and many others, find extreme interest in psychoactive ompounds and how they can affect our world. Without the study of the more extreme side effects of compounds, how we can expect to progress in our world of modern medicine? Just because a chemical can be abused, does not mean that we should probihibit not Just the possession of said compound, but also the study of it. We live in a world of fear and ignorance, and if we do not fght it, we will never progress. If Sasha has taught me anything, it is to fight for what I believe is morally correct, and I advise you all to do the same. Long live Alexander Shulgin and his dirty pictures. How to cite Alexander Shulgin, Papers

Case Study Magistrate Act

Question: Discuss about theCase Studyfor Magistrate Act. Answer: Magistrate Court Magistrate court is guided by the Magistrate Act 1989. It is considered to be the lowest court in the hierarchy of the courts in Australia. The Magistrate court provides independent justice to the people within its jurisdiction according to the rule of natural justice. The justice by the Magistrate court is easily accessible by the people within the jurisdiction of the magistrate Court. Being the lowest court in the hierarchy, Magistrate court is the busiest court. Maximum cases start in this court. Magistrate court has the power to transfer the cases to the higher court in the hierarchy, if the Magistrate court thinks that the matter of the case should be heard by the higher court or the matter of the case is outside the jurisdiction of the Magistrate court. The Magistrate court, if it wants or thinks fit can also settle any case outside the court by the way of Alternative Dispute resolution. The court is headed by the Magistrate who is a civil officer which provide justice by way o f equal law to the people coming in for justice. The Magistrate court has the power and jurisdiction over both the civil and criminal matters. It mainly deals with the tort law, penalties and fine, any kind of traffic offences family matters, any money claims and other criminal matters, (MAGISTRATECOURT, 2016). The Magistrate Court also has the jurisdiction and can execute its power on the matter of the Koori court, Drug Court, Childrens Court of Victoria, etc. Extra-judicial programs like Court Integrated Program, Enforcement Review Program, Aboriginal Program etc., are also held by the Magistrate Court. Section 25 and section 100 of the Magistrate Act, 1989, states about the criminal jurisdiction and civil jurisdiction respectively, (LEGISLATION, 2016). Section 25 states that the Magistrate Court has the power to hear and determine all the summary offences. Section 100 of the Magistrate Act 1989, states about the extent of the civil jurisdiction of the Magistrate court, (AUSTII, 2016). It states that the Magistrate court has the power to hear any civil claim to the extent of $100,000. The purpose of the Magistrate court as stated in section 1 of the Magistrate act 1989 is to have quick access over the cases in order to provide justice and to remove the unnecessary court procedures which take lot of time to hear the case and provide justice. The layout of the court room is very simple and easily understood. The seat of the Magistrate is raised from the ground and a table has been placed before the Magistrate with a computer on the top of the table. This can be seen in the front of the court room. There is a seat and a table for the clerk on the left side of the Magistrate with a computer in front. There is a witness box with a small bench in the front. A holy Bible is been placed on the table for the purpose of oath taking. A big screen is placed on the back wall of the witness box for the purpose of the video conferencing. This video conferencing is for the purpose for giving evidence by the witnesses if the witnesses are unable to attend the court in person or if it is dangerous for the accused to come to the court. There is a bench before the Magistrates where the parties to the case sits. There is also a public gallery where general public can sit provided they follow the court room ethics. Every people present in th e court should bow while the Magistrate Enters or exits the court room. Ethical Issues of the Case A criminal case related to breach of diving license condition in a Magistrate Court is been observed in Ringwood. The issue of the said case is that whether there is a breach of section 50AAD of the Road Safety Act committed by the defendant. The breach here has been done by breaching the condition of the driving license where it has been clearly mentioned about the Alcohol interlock and the defendant was driving a car where there was no fitting of the approved alcohol interlock device. After the case, if the defendant would be held guilty then what would be the liability of the defendant or what penalty he is abound to get. Facts of the Case The fact of the case is that Kandaswamy Ganeshalingam was driving the car in Mulgrave on January 7th 2016. He was stopped by the police while driving. He was asked to show the driving license. As he showed his full Victorian driving license in order to prove his identity, the police came to know that the particular license was subject to Alcohol interlock condition. But the car which was driven by the defendant does not contain any alcohol interlock condition. after questioning, the defendant said that he was driving another car and not the car that was having the alcohol interlock condition, (MAGISTRATESCOURT, 2016). The prosecution (police) read out the facts of the case and the lawyer of the defendant submitted more facts before the honorable court and provided the court with the reason that why at the time of interception by the police the defendant was not driving the car that was fitted with the alcohol interlock device. The lawyer of the defendant pleaded on behalf of the defendant that the daughter of the defendant was driving the car on the way to Springvale shopping center for the purpose of shopping. The defendant got a phone call from the wife of the defendant at the time when both the father and daughter were busy in shopping. The wife of the defendant told him that she was really very sick and she wants the defendant urgently at home. The medical report was submitted in the court which stated that the wife of the defendant was seriously sick on that day. At the time of the phone call by the wife of the defendant, the defendants daughter was very busy in shopping. The defendant could not wait for her daughter to finish her shopping. So the defendant took his daughter car and drove back to his house to see his wife. At the timing he was driving back, the police intercepted him and asked for the license. After that it was known that the license had the alcohol interlock condition and the car which was driven by the defendant was no having any such device. Therefore, the defendant was charged for the breaching of section 50AAD (1) (a) of the Road safety Act1986. Relevant Laws The section 50AAD of the road safety act deals about the offences and immobilization. It has been stated there that any person whose driving license has the condition of alcohol interlock and the person is not acting accordingly is breaching the section. Any person who is driving a motor vehicle having alcohol interlock condition but the alcohol interlock device is not working or disengaged, or is not according to the instructions given by the manufacturers for using the alcohol interlock device also breaches the said section. The person found guilty of the offence of breaching subsection (1) of the section 50AAD is liable to be imposed with fine of 30 penalty units or with imprisonment for not less than 4 months, (LEGISLATION, 2016). The subsection (3) of the section 50AAD, (AUSTII, 2016) of the act is the defence that can be made by the defendant who has been accused of breaching the section 50AAD of the Road safety Act. Appraisal of Legal Argument by the Counsel As it was found that the license of the defendant was a subject to the alcohol interlock condition, so by driving the car of the daughter of the defendant which was not having any alcohol interlock device, the defendant has breached the law mentioned in the section 50AAD (1) (a) of the Road Safety Act, 1986, which is very clear to the court. The section 50AAD (3) (b) of the Road Safety Act, 1986 states about the defence which may be taken up by the defendant to escape from the liability for the breach of alcohol interlock condition present in the license of the defendant. But by the set of the facts that has been provided to the court on behalf of the defendant does not fulfill the condition required to satisfy the section 50AAD(3) (a) of the Road safety Act to get free from the liability of breaching the said section. Even the defendant very much knew and has realized that by driving his daughters car without alcohol interlock device, he has acted against the condition of his driving license. Therefore, the counsel of the defendant was unable to establish the defence properly. After finding that the defendant does not have any defence on its part and has clearly breached the section 50AAD (1) (a), the learned counsel for the defendant realized that the defendant is in a position to get imposed with liability for the breach of section 50AAD (1) (a). Hence, instead of submitting any further defence and arguing for the same, the counsel for the defendant started arguing for the liability which was to be imposed on the defendant by the court. The counsel argued to lessen the liability to be imposed on the defendant. The defendant at the time of argument said that the defendant wanted to see his wife as she was sick and needed attention of the defendant and so the defendant drove the car and his daughter was nowhere in the scene as she was busy in shopping. The counsel even stated that the defendant was not financially stable to bear the fine that is to be imposed on him as he is a worker in a factory and does not have enough money and also he does not have any other source of income. Therefore, the defendant will not be able to pay huge fine and if a huge fine is imposed on him then justice will not be given to the defendant. Assessment of the Judgment The Magistrate heard the argument made by the counsel of the defendant and came to the conclusion. The Magistrate was in a view that the defendant should have the knowledge about the risk that was involved while driving the car which was not having alcohol interlock device. The defendant should also have acted with respect to the condition mentioned on his driving license. The Magistrate referred the defendant by saying that the defendant could have been sent to jail for breaching the condition of the driving license. The defendant was also referred by the Magistrate by saying that the defendant should be careful and should not repeat the same act in the future. The Magistrate gave his judgment by imposing a fine of $750 and $79 should be paid for the court fee. The defendant should pay the fine within 3 months from the date of the judgment. He was also given an option to pay the fine in Dandenong Magistrate Court. By the argument made by the counsel for the defendant and the judgment made by the court, it can be seen that the court has considered the facts of the case and the seriousness of the circumstances that could have been occurred. As the court has lessen the liability of the defendant, it is clearly understood that the court has considered the emergency of the defendant to dive the car and also that he was not financially strong to bear the fine. Reference Austii. (2016). Magistrates Act 1989. Retrieved from austii.edu.au: www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/mca1989214/notes.html Austii. (2016). Road safety act 1986. Retrieved from austtii.edu.au: www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/rsa1986125/s50.html Legislation. (2016). Magistrates Act 1989. Retrieved from legislation.vic.gov.au: www.legislation.vic.gov.au/domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/LTObject_Store/... PDF file Legislation. (2016). Road Safety Act. Retrieved from legislation.vic.gov.au: www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/LTObject_Store/... PDF file Magistratecourt. (2016). Magistrate Court Act 1989. Retrieved from magistratecourt.vic.gov.au: https://www.magistratescourt.vic.gov.au/.../magistrates-court-act-1989 Magistratecourt. (2016). Road Safety Act. Retrieved from magistratescourt.vic.gov.au: https://www.magistratescourt.vic.gov.au/.../road-safety-act-1986